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\begin{document}
\title{Creating in Silico Interactomes}
\maketitle

\section{Introduction}

Understanding protein interactions is relevant to our understanding of
complex biological processes and to deciphering the different roles
played by genes and proteins. Since proteins seldom act alone, but
generally form multi-protein complexes which carry out
different molecular tasks. The presence of these complexes and 
their respective composition define an important level of
organization within tissues or cells. In this paper we discuss the problem of estimating
interactomes; in particular we concetrate on two different
interactomes: one representing binary interaction data and the second
representing protein complex composition. We propose treating these as
estimation problems and apply a sound statistical approach. The
estiamtes are based on experimental data as well as data from other
sources, and we consider how and when to combine data from these
different sources. There are several high through-put experiments that
provide data on protein interactions and hence on the estimation
problem we are interested in. These include the yeast two-hybrid
system (Y2H) with data from \cite{Ito, Uetz, Giot} and high-throughput
co-precipitation experiments such as \citep{Gavin, Ho, Krogan}.

While several authors have constructed, or estimated, interactomes
by combining these, and other data sets, our approach is different (FIXME
citations here). We create different interactomes, each relevant to 
a particular concept or type of interaction. The resultant 
interactomes can be combined by different users, often according
to different criteria, to yield more comprehensive interactomes. We
believe that there is value in keeping the different concepts separate. 
Binary physical interactions are quite distinct from multi-protein complex 
membership, since the relationships defined by the latter are not binary
and not all members of a protein complex directly interact. Further,
the data sources are quite different, and the experimental errors differ
in type and magnitude according to the assays used. By keeping data types

separate we will be able to better assemble and model the observed data.

Data from high throughput experiments are expensive and time consuming
to carry out. As a result relatively few statistical methods have been
developed and those that have tend to be centered on a particular
experiment and have not been broadly validated.  These observations
suggest that simulation models may be beneficially employed to
identify the viability of experimental procedures, to aid in
integrating data from disparate sources, and to provide a sound basis
for designing experiments. In this paper we outline an approach in the
creation of \textit{in silico interactomes} that would be suitable for
such simulation experiments as well as for a number of other analytic
purposes.

We consider the problem of estimating \textit{in silico} interactomes
(ISI) for \textit{Saccharomyces cerevisiae} and we describe five
different roles where such a computational device can be used.  First,
the ISI provides a tool on which wet-lab experiments can be simulated;
these \textit{in silico} experiments can help to confirm the viability
of the wet-lab experimental procedures by allowing investigators to
alter experimental conditions (by the modification of both stochastic
and systematic error rates) and then measure how the outputs change as
the error rates do. Second, the ISI provides a tool from which
multiple data sets can be generated, under different conditions, so
that the statistical properties of different proposed estimation
procedures can be directly compared. A third use for the ISI is to
develop tools and strategies for small scale experiments that can
probe the interactome at a very detailed level. For example, a
reasonable strategy to investigate a set of protein complexes is to
first select a small number of candidate genes and explore their
interactions via co-precipitation experiments. Once the first
experiment has been collected one would like to analyze the data and
determine an optimal, or nearly optimal set of baits for future
experiments. A fourth use of an ISI is to study the effect of
perturbations in a network.  Such perturbations could be caused by a
mutation, gene deletion or treatment with a drug.  The fifth use for
such a tool is to explore and understand the effects of different
sampling paradigms on the inferences that can drawn from different
wet-lab experiments. We note that there are a number of recent papers
\citep{Oltavi,Goverview, SubsampNetworks} that raise many important
issues in this regard.

An ISI is not without its limitations. It cannot establish new
relationships between its members, but rather can only reflect the
current state of biological knowledge. It can, however, be used in any
of the five tasks listed above and the outputs of the computational
experiments will often provide predictions of real interactions that
can be tested. If these predictions are accurate there will be a
resultant savings in cost as wet lab experiments can be directly
tailored to the set of likely candidates. Further, one type of
interaction can be used either to predict or to model other types of
interactions and to provide information about the likelihood of
interactions; the verification of interactions, however, remains the
domain of experimental biology.

Protein interactions are dynamic by nature so that different
interactions occur at different times and under different
conditions. For example, some protein complexes such as those needed
to facilitate cell division are often transient in nature appearing
when needed and dissolving when no longer required, whereas other
complexes such as the ribosome (and its subunits) are essentially
permanently constituted. We will not directly address this concern but
note that the tools and methods we are proposing have natural
extensions that would cover many of the important scenarios that this
observation suggests.


While the estimated interactome is itself of some great interest, we
note that it is more important to describe the procedure by which an
ISI is produced. There are many reasons why the estimate is of less
importance, among them the fact that the methodology can be applied to
many organisms and tissue types to yield specialized ISI estimates. We
also note that the data used in the construction is constantly being
updated and improved, hence users will want to regularly update any
estimate as new data sources become available, or old ones are
updated. Hence, to be viable there must be a mechanism for
updating and refining the ISI. We also note that there are many
different and disparate data sources and the system should be
sufficiently flexible to allow users to select data sources
appropriate for their studies as well as the ability to incorporate
additional data from new and potentially different experimental
techniques. Finally we note that investigators will often want to
modify the ISI, either with locally produced, though not yet public,
data, or to satisfy personal beliefs. The paradigm we describe here
allows investigators to create their own personalized estimates, to
share interactomes and to revise and update interactomes.

We provide the complete set of tools used to create and manipulate the
interactome in the \Rpackage{ScISI} package available through the
Bioconductor project (\url{www.bioconductor.org}). Others are free to
explore, extend, critique, and improve these methods.

\section{Preliminaries}

In our discussion we do not distinguish between the term gene and the
term protein, since the available resolution is not fine enough and
equating these concepts leads to a more comprehensible dialog. The
methodology is sufficiently general to be able to address the more
complicated situation of different protein/polypeptide variants should
they arise.

\subsection{Biological Interactomes}

In the broadest sense, an interactome is a set of genes, or their
related proteins, within a particular organism or cell type. The
genes, or proteins have a variety relationships with each other and
each of these different relationships can be modeled using some form
of graph. We represent genes as nodes in a graph and then use edges to
represent the different types of relationships that exist. Some
relationships are binary, for example, protein $p_1$ is known to
directly physically interact with some other protein, $p_2$. In other
cases, the relations are not binary but rather are one to many or many
to many.  For example, all members of a complex are related to each
other, but they need not directly interact and the relationship
between the members of a multi-protein complex is not binary. A
reasonable model for protein complex data is as either a hypergraph
\cite{Berge} or an equivalent bipartite graph. Proteins are grouped
into sets according to whether they are in a complex and these sets
constitute the hyperedges of the hypergraph. There is no need for the
hyperedges to be disjoint and proteins can be in many or few
hyperedges, depending on whether the protein is in many or few
complexes. While some represent multi-protein complex data in the form
of a binary graph we do not since such a representation imposes a
strict loss of information; we prefer the hypergraph since it
conserves all important information.

\begin{figure}
\centering
\subfigure[Protein Binary Interaction Network]{
\includegraphics[width = 65mm]{../extdata/protein_network_large.jpg}}
\caption{A protein binary interaction network as a graph and protein complex
membership network rendered as a bipartite graph FIXME - Cannot use this as it is
probably copyrighted, but wanted to put here as example...need to render one 
ourselves}
\end{figure}


These two biological interactomes are related, but they are also
distinct, and the use of the data in modeling and other downstream
uses requires that some caution be used to not confuse the
concepts. It is certainly the case that for our working definition of
a protein complex (to be defined) the members of that complex will have some binary
interactions with other members. But not all members have direct
physical interactions with other members. These two examples highlight
the subtle differences between two distinct interactomes and
underscores the necessity to keeping distinct interactomes
separate. We will refer to the interactomes modeling binary
interactions as $I_b$, where the $b$ subscript reinforces the notion
that binary relationships are being modeled and the protein complex
interactome as $I_c$ where the $c$ subscript reinforces the notion
that protein complexes are being modeled.

There are of course many limitations to such an approach, however,
there will be ample opportunity to refine and revise the models
proposed here as our knowledge of the underlying biology improves and
as the available computer technology improves. Among the limitations
is the observation that some interactions will only take place under a
specific set of conditions, and that other interactions, sometimes
involving the same proteins, will occur under other conditions. Thus,
the model representing these data will need to become richer. The
models we propose can be extended in fairly straightforward ways to
encompass these details, but the available data is currently to
sparse to warrant such an approach.

%% (FIXME: list the yeast data here) ... can you explain which data you
%% would like listed...certainly not all of the y2h data?  
%% FIXME:RG:March I think we should have a table that lists the main ones - 
%%genome wide ones, with some notion of number of reported baits and number 
%% of reported hits. 


\subsection{Graphs and HyperGraphs}

We require a small amount of graph theory to allow for succinct
discussion of the relevant concepts. A graph $G$, consists of a pair
of sets; the vertices, or nodes, $V$, and the edges, or relations,
$E$. We write $G=(V,E)$. Graphs can be used to represent binary
relationships and hence are an appropriate model and data structure
for $I_b$. They cannot represent the more complicated situation of
modeling protein complex co-membership. In this case we require the
use of hypergraphs \cite{Berge}. A hypergraph, $H$, consists of a set
of nodes, $V$, and a set of hyperedges. A hyperedge is any subset of
$V$. Thus, for modeling protein interaction data the vertex set is the
set of proteins in the organism or tissue under study. To represent binary
relationships we will use a graph, where the edges indicate the
presence of a binary interaction and for complex co-membership data we
will use a hypergraph, where the hyperedges are the identities of the
proteins that constitute the complex. There is a one-to-one
relationship between hypergraphs and bipartite graphs and we will use these 
terms inter-changeably in the report. Indeed it will be the case that
bipartite graphs are much easier to render pictorially, and so we 
will defer to these graphs rather than the hypergraphs when needed.

There are a variety of different representations for both graphs and
hypergraphs. We will mainly make use of the incidence matrix
representation for $H$ and the adjacency matrix representation of $G$.
For the protein complex hypergraph the
incidence matrix representation, $M_H$, is a $\{0,1\}$-matrix where
proteins index the rows and protein complexes index the columns, with

\begin{equation}
(M_H)_{ij} = 
\begin{cases}
1& \mbox{if protein $i$ is a member of complex $C_j$},\\
0& \mbox{otherwise}.
\end{cases}
\end{equation}


We remark that this representation can be extended to include the
multiplicities of protein membership by simply letting the entries
$(M_H)_{ij} \in \mathbb{N}$. The non-negative integer would imply the
multiplicity by which a protein appears in a given protein complex.

When studying
binary interactions the representation will be of a graph, and then
the adjacency matrix is typically square (or upper triangular) with
the proteins indexing both the rows and the columns,

\begin{equation}
(M_B)_{ij} = 
\begin{cases}
1& \mbox{if protein $i$ directly interacts with protein $j$},\\
0& \text{otherwise}.
\end{cases}
\end{equation}

<<getGraph, echo=FALSE, results = hide>>=
library("ScISI")
library("Rgraphviz")
data(arp23G)
data(nAt)
pdf("arp23Graph.pdf")
plot(arp23G, "dot", nodeAttrs = nAt)
dev.off()
@ 

%%FIXME: here and in all other figures - you get one caption, not a
%%bunch. Label subfigures a), b) and so on and refer to them in the
%%single caption, please.
\begin{figure} 
\centering
\subfigure[]{
\label{arp23Physical}
\includegraphics[width = 75mm]{../extdata/Arp2_3_complex.png}}
\subfigure[]{
\label{arp23Graph}
\includegraphics[width =75mm]{arp23Graph.pdf}}
\caption{Some scientists might find the physical rendering of ARP 2/3 to be
of more use while others might prefer a graphical representation. We note that
the issue of identifiability presents itself as creator of the atomic rendering
has chosen one version of the common names while the creator of the graph has
chosen the systematic gene names. The coloring scheme provided allows for one
to one matching of proteins from one rendering to the other.\label{fig:arp23}}
\end{figure}

\subsection{Protein complexes: Definition, Representation and
  Characteristics} 

We define a protein complex to be two or more proteins that combine to
form a single, connected functional unit for the purposes of carrying
out some biological objective. There is no assumption that all members
of a complex physically interact with one another, but there must be
sufficient physical binary interactions so that all proteins form a
connected multi-protein structure. In essence, we define a
multi-protein complex as a collection of proteins, and in some cases
polypeptides, that are connected via binary interactions.

\subsubsection{Protein (Complex) Identifiability}

For a protein complex to be uniquely identifiable, it is necessary for each 
of the constituent protein members to be uniquely identifiable. Unfortunately,
this is not always possible. Genes, and their corresponding proteins, are
often referenced using database or investigator specific names and mappings
from one nomenclature to another are not always one to one. We have
used the approach of mapping all identifiers to the set of yeast systematic 
names and all references will be made using systematic names. When the mappings
were not unique we selected the first name in the list.
Table~\ref{geneNames} gives presents some examples of the problems that 
arise when mapping between systematic and common names.

\begin{table}
\centering
\label{geneNames}
\begin{tabular}{|l|p{0.65\textwidth}|}
\hline
Gene Common Names&Corresponding Gene Systematic Names\\
\hline
YRF1&YER190W, YDR545W, YGR296W, YLR466W, YLR467W, YNL339C, YPL283C\\
YPK1&YKL126W, YJL093C, YNL307C\\
POT1&YIL160C, YKL198C\\
ZRG11&YIL046W, YOR030W\\
RTS1&YOR014W\\
\hline
Gene Systematic Names&Corresponding Gene Common Names\\
\hline
YPL084W&NPI3, ASI6, VPS31, LPF2\\
YIL148W& UB11, UBI1, CEP52A\\
YNL041C& SEC37, COD2\\
YGR028W& YTA4\\

YHR133C&NA\\
YPL170W&NA\\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\caption{The correspondence between common names and systematic names in
\textit{S. cerevisiae}. Notice that the correspondence can be many to one in 
both instances and can also be undefined.}

\end{table}

%%FIXME: data sources need to be listed somewhere - or perhaps only in
%%the supplimentary data. 


\section {Methodology}

<<getdataS, echo=FALSE, results = hide>>=
data(dataS)
@ 

<<expdataStats, eval = TRUE, echo=FALSE, results=tex >>=
xtable(dataS, display = c("s","d","d","d","d","d", "d", "d"), 
    label = "ta:dataSource", 
    caption="This table details the data sources from
which we have derived both the complex membership (CM) 
data as well as the protein-protein interaction (PPI)
data. The rows (in descending order) detail the gene
association type, the method of detection of the association
type, and the time-table of updates.") 


@ 

The creation of an interactome is based on the integration of a number
of different data sources. These data sources need to be identified,
the likely sources of variability and the nature and extent of
incompleteness needs to be assessed. Once these issues have been
addressed we can then proceed to develop methods for combining the
data into a single overall estimate. Many methods for combining data
have an intrinsic assumption that the error rates are similar for the
experiments being combined. While the use of graph models makes some
of the steps easier, their use does not preclude the application of
sound statistical practice.

We identify three distinct sources of data that can be used to
construct the protein complex interactome and then two other sources
of data that can be used to create the binary interactome. We
emphasize the construction of the protein complex interactome as it is
quite different from other published protein interaction data bases,
while the binary interaction estimate is more similar to other
constructs and tends to differ from them in important, but less
dramatic ways.

<<getGraph2, echo=FALSE, results = hide>>=
data(eAt)
pdf("arp23Y2HG2.pdf")
plot(arp23G, "dot", edgeAttrs = eAt, nodeAttrs = nAt)
dev.off()
@ 

<<getGraph3, echo = FALSE, results=hide>>=
data(eAt2)
pdf("arp23InfG.pdf")
plot(arp23G, "dot", edgeAttrs = eAt2, nodeAttrs = nAt)
dev.off()
@ 

%%FIXME: one label - and one caption, please
\begin{figure} 
\centering
\subfigure[]{
\label{arp23Crystal}
\includegraphics[width = 50mm]{arp23Graph.pdf}}
\subfigure[]{
\label{arp23Y2HGraph}
\includegraphics[width =50mm]{arp23Y2HG2.pdf}}
\subfigure[]{
\label{arp23InfGraph}
\includegraphics[width =50mm]{arp23InfG.pdf}}
\caption{These figures show the difference between the true atomic 
structure determined by crystallography and by Y2H experimentation as well 
as crystallography and computationally inferred interactions. The missing 
edges from the Y2H graph are
indeterminate since missing edges can either be due to the relationship
not being tested or due to false negative observations.}
\end{figure}

To provide some measure of concreteness to our discussion we will
consider the Arp 2/3 complex. Figure~\ref{arp23} provides two
different views of the Arp 2/3 complex. In panel b) we see a graph
that represents the known topology of protein interactions in Arp
2/3. Not all proteins interact with each other and in fact the graph
is quite sparse. Of the 21 possible edges there are 8, and the minimum
number of edges that would connect all proteins is 6.

\subsection{Estimation of the Protein Complex Interactome}

The explicit details of the procedures and processes are provided in
the supplementary data. In brief, we assembled data from available
public databases (GOA and MIPS) that report information on known, or
predicted protein complexes and assembled that with protein complexes
predicted from experimental data \citep{Ho, Gavin, Krogan} using the
methodology of \cite{Scholtens, ScholtensVidalGent}. In order to make
the data as comparable as possible we chose to process all
experimental data uniformly, and attempted to exclude all predicted
complexes from GOA and MIPS that were based on the high-throughput
experimental co-precipitation experiments.

%%FIXME: Tony, here we need the number of complex estimates from GO, MIPS
%%and each of the three experiments, all separate in one table. You
%%should get a more recent (the most recent) GO build from Ting as I
%%think that there are some substantial improvements.
%% and we need number of genes involved (as a third column)

<<data1, echo=FALSE, results=hide>>=
data(expStats)
@ 

<<expStats, eval = TRUE, echo=FALSE, results=tex >>=
xtable(expStats, display = c("s","d","d","d","d","d"), 
    label = "ta:expStats", 
    caption="This table details the number of complexes
             derived from each data repository or high-
             through-put experiment as well as the 
             number of expressed genes participating 
             in some none trivial protein complex.") 


@ 


\subsubsection{Merging of the Data-Sets}

After the protein complex membership data-sets have been obtained and
transformed into an incidence matrix representation, the next step is
the construction of an aggregate protein complex interactome by
combining the separate incidence matrices into one single
non-redundant bipartite graph incidence matrix. The process of merging
the smaller incidence matrices requires that we compare each predicted
protein complex with all other protein complexes. Before proceeding,
we introduce a small lemma that simplifies the merging process.

\begin{Lem}
Let $C_1,\ldots,C_n$ be non-trivial finite sets which need not be
disjoint. Comparing all the sets $(C_1,\ldots,C_n)$ and removing all 
sets $C_{l_m}$ properly contained in any $C_i$ $\forall i \in [1,n]$
is an associative process, so it can be reduced to pairwise comparisons 
in any order.
\end{Lem}

\begin{proof}
  The proof of the lemma is a clear application to the fact that set 
  inclusion is a transitive property. For instance, suppose we have
  three sets $\{C_i, C_j, C_k\}$. We may assume that $C_j \subseteqq C_i$ 
  for otherwise, we do not delete $C_j$. If we first compare $C_j$ 
  with $C_i$, we would immediately delete $C_j$ when we see the proper
  inclusion. Now we can also suppose that $C_k \subseteqq C_j$. Then 
  we must have $C_k \subseteqq C_i$, and so it still be removed. 
  We have shown comparisons to be independent of ordering and therefore,
  is an associative process.
\end{proof}

With the an application to the lemma, we can merge the graph incidence
matrices iteratively by combining them pairwise. As an example, we
detail how the protein complexes of GO, $I_{g}$, and of MIPS, $I_{m}$,
are merged. We define the merging of two interactomes as not only
combining the protein complexes from $I_{g}$ to $I_{m}$, but also
removing protein complexes which are common to both interactomes. We
note that we can also remove a protein complex of $I_{g}$ which is
sub-complex to a complex of $I_{m}$ (or vice versa), and the process
remains independent of ordering. Once the matrices $I_g$ and $I_m$ are
merged into $I_{gm}$, say, we can repeat the process described above
by merging $I_{gm}$ with another incidence matrix. This process is
repeated until all estimates are merged. We will refer to the
resulting aggregate interactome as $I_c$.


\subsection{Binary Interaction Interactome}

%%FIXME: Tony are you sure that the Miller data are not in the newest
%%IntAct data?
%%just checked and it is still not there

%%It seems that we have not made use of the predicted interaction data
%% - should we?

To estimate a binary interaction interactome, $I_b$, we made use of
available data, largely based on the Y2H \citep{Y2H}. We considered
two distinct sources of data, one being experimental data and the
other being binary interaction predictions made by
\cite{binaryppintpred}. We used two sources for experimental data: the
\texttt{IntAct} repository and the experimental data obtained from
(cite Miller et al). We choose to use the IntAct database as the
primary source for Y2H data since it is quite complete, well
documented and provides the data in a form that is relatively easy to
process. The traditional Y2H methods fail to detect interactions
between membrane bound proteins; (cite Miller et al) developed a
variant of the Y2H methodology to overcomes these difficulties.

A fundamental distinction needs to be made regarding the lack of edges
within $I_b$. An edge is missing between two proteins $p_1$ and $p_2$
in $I_b$ if either $p_1$ never interacts with $p_2$, a true negative
interaction, or $p_1$ has never been tested with respect to $p_2$, an
untested interaction. Problems arise in interpreting the structure
$I_b$ because the bait population and the prey population are seldom
fully documented. In this way, the distinction between true negative
edges and untested edges becomes indeterminate. 

In order to make the data more comparable we restricted our analysis
to the XXX data sets reported in IntAct that appeared to be genome
wide (i.e. at least 80\% of the genome was tested as prey). We set a
lower bound for the number of baits used at the threshold of twenty
proteins and note that due to the manner in which the data are
reported we will not know about baits for which no interactions were
detected. In this case, armed with knowledge of the bait proteins we
can correctly interpret missing edges between known baits and prey as
tested but not observed and those between prey only proteins as not
tested. 

We further used a number of different statistical tests, explicit
details are given in the supplementary details section, to assess the
observed error rates in the different experiments. If experiments have
vastly different error rates combining them has the potential to
dilute the good data more than we improve it.

% The situation becomes problematic when merging the membrane bound protein
% interaction data with that of the \texttt{IntAct} protein interaction
% data. The genome-wide prey condition restricts the number of
% experimental data-sets we use from the \texttt{IntAct} repository,
% and also eliminates the data-set obtained from (cite
%Miller).

%%What should we do about this???





\section{The estimates}

We have now created two fundamentally different \textit{in silico}
interactomes, $I_c$ and $I_b$ by using the resources obtained from the
R package \Rpackage{ScISI}. From these two estimates, we can generate
a list of general summary statistics that offer a more qualitative
view of these interactomes.

\subsection{Summary Statistics for the Protein Complex Interactome}

<<ScISIdata, echo = FALSE, results = hide>>=
data(ScISI)
@ 

Our estimate of $I_c$ has \Sexpr{nrow(ScISI)} unique genes
participating within \Sexpr{ncol(ScISI)} non-trivial protein
complex. We do note that this estimate will continue to expand as more
data are included in it.

%%FIXME: need to shrink this down a lot
\begin{figure}[p]
\centering
<<distPlot, fig=TRUE, echo=FALSE>>=
par(mfrow = c(1,2))
cS <- table(colSums(ScISI))
size <- as.numeric(names(cS))
repet <- as.vector(cS)
freq = rep(size, repet)
hist(freq, xlab = "ScISI Protein Complex Cardinality", ylab = "Frequency",
     main = "Complex Cardinality")

rS <- table(rowSums(ScISI))
size <- as.numeric(names(rS))
repet <- as.vector(rS)
freq = rep(size, repet)
hist(freq, xlab = "Complex Membership per Protein", ylab = "Frequency",
     main = "Complex Membership")
par(mfrow = c(1,1))
@
\caption{Distribution of Complex Cardinality and Distribution of Complex 
Membership per Protein \label{distHist}}
\end{figure}

Not limited to the number of expressed genes and protein complexes, we
can investigate both the distribution of the size of the protein
complexes as well as the distribution of the number of complexes to
which each protein belongs. Figure~\ref{distHist} shows gives us these
distributions. We can see from each histogram that the vast majority
of proteins participate in relatively few protein complexes and also
that most of predicted protein complexes contain relatively few
proteins.

<<testStuff, echo=FALSE, results=hide>>=
data("redundantM")
data("subCompM")
@ 

%%FIXME: without numbers of complexes in each of these I am not sure
%%how to interpret Table 2, could we have a table that lists each data
%%source and the number of estimated complexes?
%% also I think it would be good to use some sort of comparison of the
%% different estimates (Gavin, Ho and Krogan) to the known complexes
%% from GO and MIPS as a validation. Also, is there anything in
%% apComplex that can be used to estimate either FP or FN rates on a
%% per experiment basis?
We can also inspect each pair of protein complexes from each of the
data repositories. In Table~\ref{ta:Repetitions}, we have the number
of protein complexes which are common between each pair of
databases. For instance, the number of common protein complexes
between the GO and MIPS repositories is \Sexpr{redundantM[1,2]}, and
this is a relatively small overlap between protein complexes which
have been verified. It comes as no surprise that the overlap of
putative protein complexes estimated from the high through-put data
via \Rpackage{apComplex} with each other as well as with GO and MIPS
is particularly small. While this fact does not repudiate these
putative protein complexes, it does signal the need for further
validation.

<<redundantSubC, eval = TRUE, echo=FALSE, results=tex >>=
xtable(redundantM, display = c("s","d","d","d","d","d"), 
    label = "ta:Repetitions", 
    caption="Number of repetitive protein complexes.") 

xtable(subCompM, display = c("s","d","d","d","d","d"),
       label = "ta:subComplexes", 
caption = "Number of protein sub-complexes: the rows indicates the
       source of the sub-complex while the column indicates the source
       of the complex containing the sub-complex. For example, 51 MIPS
       complexes are sub-complexes of GO complexes.")
@ 

Table~\ref{ta:subComplexes} accounts for the number of protein 
complexes from one database which are proper sub-complexes of protein
complexes in any database. These cross-references show one limitation
discussed by \citep{Scholtens}; the fact that \Rpackage{apComplex} 
is highly sensative the false negative observations in the AP-MS 
technology. From Table~\ref{ta:subComplexes} we can observe on
anomalie in these data. The Gavin and Krogan estimates are roughly
symmetric with respect to GO and MIPS, but Ho is not. Many Ho
estimates are sub-complexes of GO and MIPS complexes, but almost no GO
and MIPS complexes are sub-complexes of Ho estimates.
%%how are the proportions? Does this suggest that the Ho estimates are
%%too small?


%and this limitation, we 
%can reasonably assume that those putative estimates by
%\Rpackage{apComplex} which are proper sub-complexes to verified 
%complexes are ideal candidates for further computational work. 

\subsection{Summary Statistics for the Protein Binary Interactome}

<<getY2H, eval=TRUE, echo=FALSE, results=hide>>=
library("ppiStats")
library("ppiData")
data(y2hSysGW)
data(y2h)
#data(y2hGW)
data(intActPPIData)
@ 

%%FIXME: a table of the experiments, number of baits and number of
%%interactions - system (Gal4 or ???) etc. 

%%FIXME: Tony, please report here thenumber of experiments, that we
%%are dropping e.g. those with less than 20 interactions since there is

Much like the analysis for $I_c$, we begin the dissection of $I_b$ by
investigating the number of baits sampled. From the restrictions
described above, we made use of only \Sexpr{length(y2hSysGW)} of the
experimental data-sets, and from these, a total of
\Sexpr{length(unique(unlist(lapply(y2hSysGW, function(x) names(x)))))}
unique proteins were tagged with binding domains and became functional
bait proteins. While the prey population is genome wide, only
\Sexpr{length(unique(unlist(y2hSysGW)))} unique proteins interacted
with some particular bait protein(s) and were observed as prey.

%%FIXME: Tony, you used to say something about the problems mapping
%% the IntAct data and the fact that you kept the ids that did not map
%% I have moved that discussion to the supplementary data - but please
%% remove these observations, we only want things that map to
%% systematic names otherwise the
%%down stream consequences are a pain...

<<someY2HStats, eval=TRUE, echo=FALSE, results=hide>>=
#tmp <- intActData$indexSetAll
#names(tmp) <- intActData$shortLabel
#tmp2 <- list()
#tmp2[[1]] <- sapply(tmp, function(x) {sapply(x, function(v) v[1])})
#tmp2[[2]] <- sapply(tmp, function(x) {sapply(x, function(v) v[2])})

#for (i in 1:length(tmp)){
#    tmp[[i]] <- split(tmp2[[2]][[i]], tmp2[[1]][[i]])
#}

#y2hGW <- tmp[c(1,4,28,39,40,41,42)]

#baitsUsed <- unique(unlist(sapply(y2hGW, function(x) {sapply(x,
#                                                             function(y)
#                                                             y[1])}))) 
#translation <- y2h$baitsSystematic[baitsUsed]
#numMulNameBaits <- sapply(translation, length)

#preysUsed <- unique(unlist(y2hGW))
#translation2 <- y2h$preysSystematic[preysUsed]
#numMulNamePreys <- sapply(translation2, length)
@ 

%%FIXME: I have no idea what a SGN is - it seems not to be defined.
%% I don't like the histograms because they are uninformative. Lets
%% look at prey per bait, per experiment or something like that
%% instead. But maybe that is not what you are showing me here.

%\begin{figure}[p]
%\centering
<<multiPlot, fig=TRUE, echo=FALSE>>=
#par(mfrow = c(1,2))
#multi <- table(numMulNameBaits)
#size <- as.numeric(names(multi))
#repet <- as.vector(multi)
#freq <- rep(size, repet)
#hist(freq, xlab = "Number of SGN", ylab = "Frequency",
#     main = "Bait Mapping Multiplicity")


#multi <- table(numMulNamePreys)
#size <- as.numeric(names(multi))
#repet <- as.vector(multi)
#freq <- rep(size, repet)
#hist(freq, xlab = "Number of SGN", ylab = "Frequency",
#     main = "Prey Mapping Multiplicity")

#par(mfrow = c(1,1))
@

%\label{multiHist}
%\caption{Histograms giving the multiplicity of the bait and 
%prey protein mappings from the IntAct Codes to SGNs.}
%\end{figure}

%%%What else shoule be said? I don't like the histograms because 
%%it does not give any indication if the mapping is has >2 outcomes

\subsection{PPI Predictions}

<<ppipred, echo=FALSE, results=hide>>=
library("ppiData")
data(ppipred)
@ 

\cite{PPIpred} report \Sexpr{nrow(ppipred)} pairwise predictions
between proteins in \textit{S. cerevisiae}, with a presumed 
false positive rate of $3E-4$ and a presumed false negative rate of
$0.85$. The predictions are accompanied by a probability and one can
select only those predicted interactions according to this
probability. We have chosen to use only those interactions where the
probability is at least $0.5$. This greatly reduces the number of 
predicted interactions and also greatly reduces the number of
proteins that were observed. 

When using these data, only proteins that are predicted to be involved
in at least one interaction are \textit{observable}. This changes as
the probability cut-off changes and can be interpreted as the
sensitivity of the analysis. This phenomenon is no different than that
observed with different experimental procedures, not all interactions can
be detected with all procedures and one must make some efforts to determine
which interactions can be detected.

Once the observable proteins have been determined they can be use to
compute the different summary statistics discussed in
Section~\ref{sec:summary}. 

For each protein complex, $C$, we divide its constituent proteins into two
sets, those that are observable, denoted $U$ and those that are not,
$\overline{U} = C \\ U$. If $P \in U$, then we expect there to be 
an edge between $P$ and some other member of $C$, but we will only
observe this edge if it is to another member of $U$. 

\subsection{Putting it together}

Are we going to put the predictions and the binary data together to
get $I_b$? It seems like we should...

   
\section{Validation}

Perhaps the only truly contentious aspect of our analysis is the use
of the methodology of \cite{Scholtens, ScholtensVidalGent} to provide
a majority of the predicted complexes in $I_c$. And we now turn our
attention to a validation of that approach. Our basic premise is that
the complex is a collection of physically connected proteins. While,
in some cases this may not be strictly true and there could be two or
more subcomponents that do not physically interact such cases will
have little impact on the validation methods we employ and hence are,
to a large extent, covered by our proposals. To validate our estimates
we will compare them directly to the curated complexes of MIPS and
GO. If the distribution of different test statistics looks the same
for our data as for MIPS and GO estimated complexes then this
observation provides some validation of our approach and suggests that
for the criteria tested there is little difference between our
estimates and the more heavily curated protein complex estimates from
MIPS and GO.

If all physical interactions between proteins were known, then the
problem would be somewhat straightforward to address. One would simply
take a predicted complex and determine whether the constituent
elements interact and deem the complex \textit{viable} if it could be
configured as a single connected component. However, very few
interactions are known, and it is this incompleteness that requires us
to make inference about whether the prediction is likely to be
valid. Unfortunately the topology of the complexes (the set of actual
true interactions) is unknown and hence cannot itself be used to
assess the observed data. We do not know how many edges (physical
interactions) there should be, and whether the complex follows a spoke
topology, a matrix topology or any of the many other
possibilities. 

We also note that one of the alternatives that some have used, which
is to compare their predictions to the published, and to some extent
verified complexes described in GO and MIPS is not available to us. We
used those sources in construction of our estimate and hence cannot
validate against them. Instead we make use of two other sources of
data. One being the set of observed yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) experiments
available from IntAct and the other being a set of predicted
protein-protein interactions from \cite{PPIpred}.

Before describing the data we briefly discuss the statistical issues
involved. In most cases only a subset of the genes were assayed, or
considered and it will be important to restrict the computations to
those genes that were assayed.  A working hypothesis is that every
protein complex is a single connected component, so that when the
complex is functional it is a single unit. When considered in terms of
binary interactions this requires that there be at least $k-1$ edges
for a complex containing $k$ proteins, but not any set of $k-1$ edges
will suffice. There can be no more than $k \cdot (k-1)$ edges in
total. It does seem that most complexes tend to have fewer, rather
than more edges.

\subsection{Y2H Validation}

We will make use of $I_b$ to provide us with an estimate of the binary
interactome. These data give us some sense of the known binary
interactions but the logic underlying their use requires some care in
application. APMS data indicates the consituent members of the
complex but gives no information about the true topology of the binary
interactions. 

%%FIXME: we need some data before this is going anywhere.
Since Y2H data are somewhat notorious for high false positive and
false negative rates we have chosen to restrict the data to more
informative subset. Since the Y2H reactions occur in the nucleus 


Hence we require only that for a given complex, any
member used as a bait pro
unknown we cannot test whether the observed Y2H

only be obtained for complex estimates that contain one or more Y2H
bait proteins. And since the actually physical interactions are not
known, the topology of the Y2H graph is also not known.


Any bait protein in a Y2H experiment should find one or more complex
co-members provided those co-members were available as prey in the Y2H
experiment. This proviso indicates one of the true weaknesses of Y2H
data as they are often reported since only information about the prey
that were detected and not the prey that were tested is
reported. Thus, the absence of an edge is not as informative as it
could be. We do not know if it was tested and not found or not tested,
and these are very different things.




\section{Discussion}

What did we learn,

\bibliographystyle{plainnat}
\bibliography{bioc}

\end{document}
